The use of salts in postharvest treatments could eventually constitute an interesting alternative to synthetic chemical fungicides as many salts are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and used in food processing industry. The carbamic acid class of fungicides includes dithiocarbamates (ferbam, thiram, ziram, Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, Sittig's Handbook of Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals (Second Edition), Lockhart & Wisemans Crop Husbandry Including Grassland (Ninth Edition), conditions which, when they occur, are known as Blight Periods. Table 47.2 lists some of the most widely utilized contact/protectant fungicides on turfgrass, their structures, and the diseases they commonly control. Recovery of propamocarb hydrochloride from wine spiked before dilution was in the range from 91 to 115%. Wats) essential oils inhibiting F. graminearum on maize grain had an inhibitory effect on DON and ZEA production (Velluti et al., 2004). Ammonium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, potassium sulfate, sodium sulfate, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, aluminum chloride, and calcium and potassium phosphites also reduced significantly the disease under laboratory conditions (Mecteau et al., 2002, 2008; Lobato et al., 2008; Kolaei et al., 2012). ), and removal by mowing. It is also important to think about preventative measures to stop the spread of blight. Lastly, there are the more systemic penetrant fungicides for control of the oomycete diseases such Pythium blight. Germinated spores developed short and stumpy germ tubes; the cell wall structure is altered in the region of the hyphal tips that are still growing. Molecular weight=224.73; Specific gravity (H2O:1)=1.16 @ 20C; Boiling point=(decomposes) 100C (liquid); Freezing/Melting point=64C. Propamocarb, sold as Banol and Previcur, is effective against Pythium, Phytophthora, downy mildews, some rusts, and others. 9-31C) or are injected into the soil through chisels but, usually, without being covered with plastic afterward (Fig. Major Turfgrass Diseases, Pest Insects/Nematodes, and Weeds as Determined by Problem Intensity ( 10% Occurrence)a. Contact/protectant fungicides act at the plant surface and reduce infestation. It can be used on Bermuda, St. Augustine, centipede, fescue, Kentucky blue, perennial rye, and Bahia grasses in commercial turf. Rabbits and mice were resistant to oral doses, whereas cleft palate, tail and digital defects, and anal atresia were observed in hamster embryos (Teramoto et al., 1978). Emulsifiable concentrates of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill. et Link. These fungicides alter thyroid hormone levels and/or weights. Moreover clove (Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill & Perry) and palmarose (Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Control of annual and perennial weeds in nonplaying areas on golf courses and for turfgrass replacement is accomplished using nonselective postemergent herbicides such as glyphosate. The malformations produced by ETU exposure in vivo were those expected as a result of thyroid insufficiency. Variable efficacy (+/); effective (+); ineffective (). Of the major used fungicides on turf, the upwardly mobile penetrant types are the most chemically diverse (eight fungicides) and control the most fungal diseases (17 fungal diseases). Locally absorbed fungicides, including chloroneb, iprodione, and vinclozolin, are absorbed into the leaf tissue and remain close to their point of entry. These fungicides alter thyroid hormone levels and/or weights. Cineole and menthol vapors reduced markedly the rot in tubers inoculated with two strains of F. sambucinum (Vaughn and Spencer, 1994). From: Plant Pathology (Fifth Edition), 2005, M. Kilian, U. Steiner, in Encyclopedia of Rose Science, 2003. With repeated ingestion, there is a possibility of cutaneous effects, alopecia and a risk of antithyroid effects, especially with maneb. hydrochloride fungicide pesticide chinese The developmental toxicity included malformations and embryo-fetotoxic effects at maternally toxic dose levels with EBDCs in rats (Ollinger et al., 2001). Guinea pigs and cats did not show any evidence of teratogenic or other developmental toxicity (Khera, 1987).
Halofenozide and imidacloprid, which both possess novel chemistry and no cross-resistance to previously used insecticides, appear to be highly effective and amenable to resistance and integrated pest management schemes. The mass spectrometry analyses were carried out by using electrospray ionization (ESI) source operating in the positive mode both for single quadrupole and for QIT mass analysers, operating in selected ion monitoring (SIM) and in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) modes, respectively. 
Multi-site mode of action prevents resistance problem. Vacuolar changes in various tissues including choroid plexus in the brain and reduction in organ weights have been observed in rats and dogs. Phosphoric acid is considered to be the active and systemic principle through disruption of phospolipid metabolism. Chitosan and -aminobutyric acid applications were also reported to reduce the lesion diameter of potato tuber inoculated with F. sulphureum and F. solani. Locally absorbed penetrant-type fungicides are represented by three fungicides, which control nine diseases, and the three systemic fungicides control two diseases, respectively. Highly systemic for quick absorption and translocation. Generally, fungicides are separated into two functional classes, the contact/protectants and the penetrants, including the systemic types. Most fungicides have a protectant and systemic action and are effective if sprayed regularly with the leaves being well covered. Other more broad-spectrum penetrant fungicides are absorbed by plant tissues and move away from the point of entry, generally in an upwards direction. Spray tank adjuvants (spreader-stickers and surfactants) have been used to improve plant coverage and surface adherence, which are critical for effective protection. Thiophanate-methyl (a benzimidazole fungicide) seed tuber piece treatment is used in Canada to control the disease. When heated to decomposition or on contact with acids or acid fumes, it may produce highly toxic chloride fumes; deadly phosgene gas may be formed. Insecticides such as acephate, bifenthin, carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, and spinosad are effective treatment for surface-feeding insect pests. The principal target organ upon repeated exposure to EBDCs is the thyroid. It is necessary to reapply these types of fungicides every 514 days due to their environmental breakdown on the plant surface, removal due to wash-off (rain, dews, etc. Essential oils and other plant extracts are promising alternatives to synthetic chemical fungicides for control of potato dry rot but further investigation is needed. Additionally the glutathione system is suggested to be a target of the dicarboximides because in vitro the fungicides inhibit the glutathione synthetase. Signal transduction, exchange of ions and substances through membranes, cell cycle and biogenesis of cell structures and other functions of organisms are controlled in this way. Leakage out of the mycelium can be inhibited by the addition of sterols. Twenty years later other chemicals were introduced to control potato tuber diseases in particular the benzimidazole fungicide thiabendazole (TBZ) (Leach and Nielsen, 1975). 
In the 1950s, the organic mercury compound Semesan Bel was found to be very effective to control dry rot. Herbicides for Turfgrass Weeds. To reduce the risk of spores spreading from the leaves to the tubers, the haulms should be destroyed when about 70% have been killed by blight; this is especially important if heavy rain is expected (Table6.2). Forklift delivery from each warehouse location to surrounding areas, UPS, Fed-Ex and/or DHL depending on location. Recoveries were in the range from 71 to 118%. With the increase concerns of the impacts of chemical fungicides on human health and the environment as well as resistance development, different chemical compounds have been tested for the control of dry rot. Fungicides for Turfgrass Diseases. Among these salts, potassium metabisulfite and sodium metabisulfite provided 100% inhibition of dry rot under laboratory conditions (Kolaei et al., 2012). As of 1998, 2,4-D was still the most widely used herbicide on turf (26% of total active ingredient applied), followed by glyphosate (11%), mecoprop (9%), pendimethalin (8%), MSMA (8%), triazines (6%), chlorothalonil (5%), benfin (3%), dicamba (2%), and other herbicides (19%) (Aspelin and Grube, 1999). The signs of toxicity include hypokinesia, lethargy, hunched posture, body tremors, clonic convulsions, nasal hemorrhages, piloerection, staggering gait, and ataxia.
Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), thyme (Thymus capitatus Hoff. Significant matrix effects observed for most of the pesticides tested were eliminated by using matrix-matched standards. Thus, the decision to apply these materials must be carefully evaluated and applications monitored judiciously. Home Proplant Fungicide (Propamocarb hydrochloride). Crabgrass germination occurs when the soil temperature is maintained at least at 65F (18C) for at least 1 week, and the monitoring of soil temperature is an efficient way to time the application. The powerful features of LC/MS, such as high efficient separation, identification, and quantification of polar analytes, make this technique very attractive to the field of pesticide residue analysis. These herbicides and some additional compounds used for weed control on turfgrass, along with their structures and effective weed targets, are given in Table 47.4. ), dictamnus (Origanum dictamnus L.), and marjoram (Origanum majorana L.) essential oils inhibited completely the growth of F. coeruleum (Daferera et al., 2003) whereas lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Proplantfungicide prevents and cures many Pythium diseases, including damping-off, cottony blight, grease spot and root rot. Proplant Fungicide (Propamocarb hydrochloride). and Phytophthora spp. Thiram induced cleft palate in one study and developmental toxicity in another study. The following sections on disease, pest, and weed management are condensed largely from the Professional Guide for IPM in Turf (University of Massachusetts-Extension, 1999), 1998 Plant Protection and Fertilizer Usage Report [Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (GCSAA), 1998], and Racke (2000). Upwardly mobile penetrant fungicides include the benzanalides, benzimiazoles, sterol inhibitors (demethylation inhibiting), and strobilurins. Reject and waste potatoes should be deeply buried and volunteers should be killed off in other crops before they become a source of infection. Colorless to yellow granules. High concentrations were necessary to decrease significantly the severity of dry rot (Olsen et al., 2003; Tweddell et al., 2003). By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. This is the worst fungal disease which attacks the potato crop. Exposure to ETU at the critical stages of pregnancy produced malformations in rats, predominantly those of the CNS. Common development and reproductive abnormalities include reduction in copulation index (female rats) and BW, retardation in ossification (rat), and increased postimplantation loss (rabbit) (JMPR, 2005). Among GRAS compounds, plant essential oils have shown in vitro activity against some Fusarium spp. It can seriously reduce yield by killing the foliage early; during periods of heavy rain the spores of the fungus can be washed into the soil and onto the tubers, so causing them to rot in the ground or during storage. Certainly for most golf courses and sports facilities, the application of pesticides is the accepted and required chemical control paradigm. Finch, G.P.F. Highly soluble in water. and some efficacy to reduce dry rot disease in vivo. Other combinations of fungicides including prochloraz Mn+tolclofos-methyl (Carnegie et al., 1998), chlorothalonil+propamocarb, and cymoxanil+mancozeb (Daami-Remadi et al., 2010) showed variable efficacy. Strains resistant to TBZ are however generally also resistant to thiophanate-methyl (Kawchuk et al., 1994; Holley and Kawchuk, 1996). ), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), sage (Salvia fruticosa Mill. bwi Aqueous extracts of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum J. Presl) also provided inhibition of mycelial growth of F. sambucinum and reduced severity of potato dry rot (Mvuemba et al., 2009). Sagratini, Maes, Giardin, Damiani, and Pic (2007) developed an analysis method to detect carbamates and phenylurea pesticide residues in fruit juices by using SPME coupled with LC/MS and LC/QIT-MS. In general, carbamic acid derivatives, except nabam, have low or moderate acute toxicity via the oral, dermal and respiratory routes. Copyright 2022 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. May cause pitting of some metals. mohamed tpri pesticides smallholder blight incidences These are recorded by the Meteorological Office, and information can be obtained by farmers by telephone or through the Internet. Turf can become infested with annual and perennial grasses (not the planted cultivar) and broadleaf plants that are controlled by the use of various herbicides.
The carbamic acid class of fungicides includes dithiocarbamates (ferbam, thiram, ziram, propamocarb) and ethylenebisdithiocarbamates (EBDCs) such as maneb, mancozeb, zineb, nabam, metiram, etc. This group includes fosetyl-Al, metalaxyl, and propamocarb. Registered for use in the U.S. tomato 2.0ppm; tomato, paste 5.0ppm; tomato, puree 1.0ppm. Carbamates are incompatible with reducing agents, strong acids, oxidizing acids, peroxides, and bases. Insecticides for Turfgrass Insect Pests. Volatile chemicals (fumigants) are often used to fumigate the soil before planting for reducing the inoculum of nematodes, fungi, and bacteria. The loss of efficacy of TBZ, mainly because of the increase in resistant Fusarium isolates, has led to the exploration of alternative chemicals for postharvest control of potato dry rot (Table 3). We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content and ads. In hamsters and rabbits, thiram induced multiple malformations including skeletal and tail defects, whereas no such malformations have been reported in rats (Schardein, 2000). Contact/protectant fungicides are the next most diverse group (four fungicides) and control 15 separate fungal diseases. Commercial product can be a soluble concentrate that may be mixed with water and used as a spray. 2000-2019 Advanced Turf Solutions, Inc. - All Rights Reserved. These materials have proven highly effective by providing excellent weed control with little or no injury to turf. However, some discrepancies in reported efficacy have arisen such as imazalil reported both effective (Hide and Cayley, 1980, 1985) and ineffective (Carnegie et al., 1998) as a postharvest treatment. (2002) demonstrated the biocidal activity of small peptides against TBZ-resistant F. sambucinum and their synergism with TBZ against TBZ-resistant and sensitive strains. The average recoveries were in the range between 70 and 110% for most of the compounds tested. Ethylenethiuram monosulfide, the degradation product of the fungicide maneb, and parent compounds such as zineb and maneb, were teratogenic in rats but not in mice (Vergieva, 1984). Currently, there is a soil fumigant (Curfew) that is registered for use on golf courses in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Texas. The reproductive system is generally unaffected by exposure to EBDCs {common metabolite, ethylenethiourea (ETU)}. The presence of plant parasitic nematodes, by themselves, is not sufficient justification for application of nematicides. Log Kow=<1.0. Chlorine and chlorine dioxide extensively used as disinfectants showed a limited efficacy to reduce dry rot. Bromoethane and rindite, chemicals used for breaking tuber dormancy, were reported to have no significant effect on dry rot development (Coleman and Murphy, 1990). The main features of toxicity include anorexia, diarrhea, and flatulence followed by neurological effects, ataxia, muscular contractions and prostration. The use of irrigation in the summer usually triggers a Blight Period and a spray programme should be started soon after. The compounds inhibit spore germination, but less strongly than mycelia development. The threshold levels of nematode populations, which trigger the implementation of control applications, are dependent on various factors (e.g., time of year, distribution, and assay procedure used), show wide regional variations, and are usually based on limited experimental data. Metiram (Leach and Nielsen, 1975), mancozeb alone (Leach and Nielsen, 1975; Cwalina-Ambroziak and Czajka, 2006) or in combination with thiophanate-methyl or flutolanil (Wharton et al., 2007) were also reported effective. 9-31A and 9-31B) to keep the chemical from escaping prematurely. For subsurface insect pest control, insecticides such as acephate, chlorpyrifos, isazophos, and trichlorfon have provided good results. Fumigation of tubers with garlic (Allium sativum L.) essential oil decreased the severity of dry rot caused by F. solani (Bng, 2007). Sensitivity varied with species. Environmentally stressed turfgrass is prone to disease and pest attack, and turf pest management is a necessity. In addition, new growth, which is not covered, is susceptible to fungal attack. Broadleaf weeds are controlled predominantly using postemergence herbicides (e.g., Trimec mixtures of 2,4-D, dicamba, mecoprop, dicamba itself, and Confront mixtures of triclopyr plus clopyralid). May form explosive materials with phosphorus pentachloride. Such fungicides include PCNB, metalaxyl, triadimefon, ethazol, and propamocarb. This would indicate possible increase in resistant isolates although factors such as mode of application, concentration of the fungicide, timing of application, initial fungal inoculum prior to fungicide application and other conditions can explain the variable effects of the treatments. Spray intervals range from 7 to 14days depending on material used and pressure of disease. Contact with active metals or nitrides causes the release of flammable, and potentially explosive, hydrogen gas. Implementation of integrated turfgrass management practices and advances in alternative pest management strategies are providing new information on how best to manage turf facilities with minimal use of pesticides and reduced environmental hazard associated with their application. Some of the systemic fungicides may provide season-long control from a single preplant application. The type and intensity of insect damage is highly regional. 9-31A and 9-31D) that release the chemical 612 inches deep into the soil and the treated area is covered immediately with plastic (Figs. Different fungicides tested for control of potato dry rot. Gonzalez et al. Growers can then respond by an application of fungicides; a wide range is available. Production of an unusual fatty acid was later reported in mycelial cells of Oomycetes. Radui, Gruji, Vasiljevi, and Lauevi (2009) developed a HPLC/MS/MS method for the analysis of pesticides in fruit juices. Neither compound is registered for use on golf courses or turfgrass. Application of fludioxonil as seed tuber treatment was shown to reduce the inoculum potential of soil surrounding the progeny tubers by affecting the spread of the pathogen from infected seed tubers (Bains et al., 1999, 2001). Locally absorbed fungicides, including chloroneb, iprodione, and vinclozolin, are absorbed into the leaf tissue and remain close to their point of entry. Cymoxanil is a systemic product with protectant and curative activity against Oomycetes. However, turfgrass is established and maintained usually with a single or few cultivars and in many cases in less than optimal environments. Other diseases of potatoes are mainly seed-borne and can be controlled by treating seed with fungicides, e.g.
The control of grass weeds is primarily accomplished by the application of preemergence herbicides (e.g., benzamide, ethofumesate, pendimethalin, prodiamine, oxadiazon, bensulide, dithiopyr, and simazine). Standard shipping rates and handling fees apply. propamocarb hydrochloride tomatoes potatoes alrahman sherif abd dissipation residue curve P.K. Highly volatile chemicals are applied to the soil with tractors dragging devices equipped with chisels (Figs. It has an active ingredient, 1,3-dichloropropene, which is highly volatile and must be applied by authorized operators. Baohui Jin, Guofang Pang, in Food Research International, 2012. Low limits of detection (0.010.94ng/mL) and quantification (0.033.12ng/mL) were readily achieved for all tested pesticides. Pest insects include surface feeders that damage foliage by chewing, piercing, or sucking (e.g., armyworms, chinch bugs, cutworms, and sod webworms) and subsurface feeders, which attack roots and result in desiccation and plants that are susceptible to drought (e.g., grubs). Control of emerged grass seedlings is usually achieved by the application of arsenates, such as MSMA, but these postemergence herbicides can injure turfgrass, particularly when applied during hot weather. For the most efficacious control of crabgrass and annual grasses, the preemergence herbicides need to be applied prior to the germination of the annual grass seeds. This group includes fosetyl-Al, metalaxyl, and, Multi-residue detection of pesticides in juice and fruit wine: A review of extraction and detection methods, reported a LC/MS method for the determination of, Economoul, Botitsi, Antoniou, and Tsipi (2009), Sagratini, Maes, Giardin, Damiani, and Pic (2007), Radui, Gruji, Vasiljevi, and Lauevi (2009), Hide et al., 1992; Kawchuk et al., 1994; Hanson et al., 1996; Platt, 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012, Hanson et al., 1996; Satyaprasad et al., 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012.
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