Dresler et al. doi: 10.1016/0013-4694(73)90176-4, Aserinsky, E., & Kleitman, N. (1953). doi: 10.1016/0093-934X(85)90028-8, Peterson, N. D., Henke, P. G., & Hayes, Z. These are dreams where the control and direction of the oneiric process are maintained, and the dreamer is aware that he is dreaming. As a consequence of the activation of Unit 1, Unit 2 is stimulated, generating activation in visual, perceptive-imaginative, auditory, linguistic, spatial, and tactile functions. This is the result of an exceptional and sudden reactivation of the functioning of the dorsolateral and medial regions of the left prefrontal lobe and the temporoparietal region during REM sleep. Brain and Language, 26(1), 6371. In the case of humans, it is interesting to find a clinical sleep disorder that is similar to the oneiric behavior experimentally induced in cats. It was not until 1900, however, that Sigmund Freud (1966) published his book The Interpretation of Dreams, which included the first scientific approach to the subject from a purely psychological point of view. It is well-established that lesions or dysfunction in this area in neuropsychological patients result in uninhibited, impulsive, and bizarre behavior. Such can be the case of people with schizophrenia (Gershon & Rieder, 1992; Goldberg, 2002) and major depression (Beck, 2008), and the 75% of criminals who exhibit low metabolism in the prefrontal lobe during wakefulness (Goldberg, 2002; Gibbs, 1995). A motivational function of REM sleep. doi: 10.1126/ science.281.5380.1188, Welsh, M. C., & Pennington, B. F. (1988) Assessing frontal lobe functioning in children: Views from developmental psychology. In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 143(3), 221-231. doi: 10.1192/bjp.142.3.221, LaBerge, S. (1990). 
Freudian dream theory today. doi: 10.1037/10499-008. Dream recall in brain-damaged patients: A contribution to the neuropsychology of dreaming through a review of the literature. According to Solms (2000), a renowned researcher in the neuropsychology of dreaming, these data support the essential idea proposed by Freud (1966), who maintained that one of the functions of dreaming was to allow instinctive impulses to emerge (limbic) without the censorship mechanism (dorsolateral and orbital prefrontal regions), thus allowing the attainment of repressed desires in a safe way. Answering these and other questions will allow continuing progress in this new and interesting field in the neurosciences: the neuropsychology of dreaming. El Cerebro Ejecutivo: Los Lbulos Frontales y la Mente Civilizada. Madsen, P. L. (1993). Figure 1. 1204-1214). Meanwhile, Koukkou and Lehman (1983) have suggested that the cerebral state of an adult during dreaming corresponds functionally to the state of wakefulness during childhood, based on the similarity of the electroencephalographic activity of the different phases of sleep and in human development phases. doi: 10.1176/jnp.14.3.283. (1985). El sueo REM y el sistema lmbico: Aspectos biolgicos de las ensoaciones. Arthur W. Epstein (1984) says that dream formation involves a complex psychological activity that integrates memory, language, and thinking itself . Solms, M. (2000). (1992) found that frontal lesions do not affect dreaming, and some patients with frontal damage show an increased frequency of nightmares (Colace1, Salotti, & Ferreira, 2015), indirectly confirming the previously mentioned PET findings. Sleep, 18(7), 570-580. Finally, we would like to mention several research questions that result from this article: What is the oneiric content in a patient with prefrontal damage? (1998). Madsen (1993), using PET, found a drop in metabolism in the orbitofrontal region during REM sleep. On the other hand, we find non-REM sleep characterized by a decrease in psychophysiological activity in general (Tllez, 1998). doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-222340-2.50015-X, Vogel, G. W., Vogel, F., McAbee, R. S., & Thurmond, A. J. Anatomic and behavioral aspects of frontal-subcortical circuits. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 14(4), 219226. This behavior is very similar to that of the Jouvet et al. During REM sleep, there is an activation of the First Unit similar to what occurs in the state of wakefulness, which manifests itself with an increase of the electroencephalographic and metabolic activity in most regions of the brain. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1995. doi: 10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01818-0.
Mxico: La Prensa Mdica Mexicana. ), The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming (pp. On the contrary, experiments with cats that had the coeruleus alfa nucleus damaged the nucleus which seems to be responsible for the motor paralysis during REM sleep have caused these animals to translate their dreams into behavior, which is generally manifested in rapid behavioral sequences of, for instance, attack, rage, and grooming. Sleep and Hypnosis, 17, 12. The conscious state paradigm: a neurocognitive approach to waking, sleeping, and dreaming. This then causes a decrease in activity in the dorsolateral region of the prefrontal lobe and an increase of activity of the limbic system, preventing the regulation and evaluation of social contexts and circumstances, sensations, and emotions in a suitable way during wakefulness (Nofzinger, 2005). Then, according to this hypothesis, a functional regression of cognitive activity in dreaming would imply incomplete functioning of the prefrontal lobe. JAMA, 257(13), 17861789. A Manual of Standardized Terminology, Techniques and Scoring System for Sleep Stages of Human Subjects. Annals of Neurology, 7(5), 471478. Luria (1974) mentioned that the confabulations of these patients are similar to the oneiric states in terms of the loss of the selectivity of mental processes, which is typical of the normal conscious life (Figure 1). New Jersey: Psychology Press. This explanation describes how, during dreaming, an activation of the First Functional Unit occurs, comprising the reticular formation of the brainstem; this activates, in turn, the Second Functional Unit which is formed by the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes and Unit L, which is comprised of the limbic system, as well as simultaneous hypo-functioning of the Third Functional Unit (frontal lobe). Magoun, H. W. (1964). A. Mxico: UAM Iztapalapa. All this intense psychophysiological activity is accompanied by muscle atonia (Berger, 1961), the function of which, some authors have mentioned, is to avoid the translation of the dream into action (Fisher, 1973). Toward an etho-ethnology of dreaming.
03390130104038, Schenck, C. H., Milner, D. M., Hurwitz, T. D., Bundlie, S. R., & Mahowald, M. Penis erection also occurs in males (Fisher, 1973),as well as increases in heart rate (Aldredge & Welch, 1973; emaityt, Varoneckas, & Sokolov, 1984). However, there are psychological processes that have received little attention in this field, such as dreaming. For example, there could be dreams with a very high emotional content due to the intense activity of Unit L, a high imaginative-visual content with an increase of activity in the right hemisphere of Unit 2, or a high narrative-linguistic content produced by the left hemisphere, but always partnered with an inhibition of the dorsolateral and basal regions of Unit 3. Other indications that the prefrontal lobe is hypo-functioning during dreaming come from comparing studies of interhemispheric and intra-hemispheric electroencephalographic correlation during wakefulness, REM, and non-REM sleep. It was also noticed that the deprivation of REM sleep in patients experiencing endogenous behavior improves their symptomatology (Vogel, Vogel, McAbee, & Thurmond, 1980). (1998). (2) the orbitofrontal region, that relates to the regulation of limbic impulses, as well as (3) the parietal-temporal-occipital (PTO), that is involved in visuo-spatial recognition, symbol processing, and face and object recognition. Therefore, the objective of this article is to present a neuropsychological model of dreaming based on the most relevant clinical, experimental, psychophysiological, and neuropsychological research. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 14(3), 283288. It also includes vital cognitive functions such as sustained attention, awareness, and insight (Luria, 1974; Cummings, 1995; Stretton, & Thompson, 2012). A.
Hobson and Stickgold (1995) found that during REM sleep, activation of the brainstem starts in the cholinergic system on a pontine level. 99133). Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. We can state that the oneiric craziness of every night is a necessary escape valve permitting the person to act sanely during the state of wakefulness. As has been previously mentioned, dreaming is a psychophysiological process as active as wakefulness; however, little is known about the neuropsychological systems involved. New Jersey: Psychology Press. In I. Karacan (Ed.). New York: Academic Press. Furthermore, there is a lack of control over the course of dream scenes, in which there are often violations of the laws of physics. The first approach toward psychobiological scientific research on the subject of dreaming occurred in 1953 when Aserinsky and Kleitman from the University of Chicago published their research, which stated that sleep with rapid eye movement, known as REM sleep, is frequently associated with dream recall. This generates a general muscle paralysis (with the exception of ocular movement), that prevents the dream from becoming an action (Berger, 1961; Jouvet, Sastre, & Sakai, 1981). However, there are psychological processes that have received little attention in this field; among them is the process of dreaming. doi: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2011.10.009. However, the activation of the First Unit during dreaming is not completely the same as in wakefulness because a cortical motor inhibition occurs, producing motor paralysis (Berger, 1961; Fisher, 1973). In addition, the suggested hypothesis of the homeostatic character of REM sleep favors the idea that the brain works in an inverse way during the state of wakefulness to assist better psychological functioning of the individual. This patient lost the ability to dream and also showed optic aphasia, optic apraxia, aphasia without agraphia, and color agnosia. MIT Press. There is a proven antidepressant effect of REM sleep deprivation (Vogel et al., 1980; Nofzinger, 2005). Major disorders of mind and brain. That being said, it can be expected that, upon the activation of Unit L and a simultaneous decrease in the functioning of the prefrontal lobe during wakefulness, any person could behave in an uninhibited, impulsive or aggressive way, with difficulties in planning and self-regulation. As we have examined, the prefrontal lobe of the human being is extremely sensitive to sleep; its functioning is altered by sleep deprivation, and it benefits and recovers with sleep of good quality and quantity (Muzur, Pace-Schott, Hobson, 2002). Grnli, J., & Ursin, R. (2009). In: R. Drucker-Coln, M. Shkurovich, & M. B. Sterman (Eds. This activity produces a perception of hallucinatory images of various sensory modes, as well as a lack of inhibition, a non-selfreflexive thought process, and a lack of planning and direction of such oneiric images. The similarity between dreaming, frontal lobe syndrome and schizophrenia are stressed, especially in terms of the confabulations, the lack of impulse control, and the lack of self-direction and monitoring that occurs in these disorders. Studies with PET have found that the visual and auditory secondary areas are especially metabolically active during REM sleep, even above levels found in wakefulness (Braun et al., 1997; Madsen, 1993). This is because of the cognitive and emotional similarities between them, such as the exaggeration of the emotional activity that contributes the deterioration of rationality and to the lack of selective attention and direction of cognitive knowledge which, besides being grotesque, contains a great quantity of confabulations. Corsi-Cabrera et al. It can be said that dreaming is a state similar to a schizophrenic or frontal lobe syndrome, but temporary, normal, and healthy, so that the next day, the brain can carry out its homeostatic function, and promote optimal functioning of the dorsolateral and orbital region of the frontal lobe during wakefulness. The study also suggests that the confabulatory, bizarre, and impulsive nature of dreaming has a function in the cognitiveemotional homeostasis that aids proper brain function throughout the day. Jouvet et al. (2010). In R. R. Bootzin, J. F. Kihlstrom, & D. L. Sctactor (Eds), Sleep and Cognition (pp. Foulkes (1982), whose studies were also based on Lurias work, suggested another model of brain functioning during dreaming. Sleep imaging and the neuro-psychological assessment of dreams. Rechtschaffen, A., & Kales, A. Lurias Model of the Brains Functional Units can be used to explain the generation of dreams and their characteristics. C) The Third Unit is formed by the frontal lobe, which is in charge of the selection, planning, execution, and direction of a persons pattern of behavior, as well as its evaluation. Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. Some data indicate that the prefrontal lobe does not reach maturity until between the ages of 10 to 12 years (Welsh & Pennington, 1988). Over the last few decades, interesting neuropsychological findings have started to surface about the relationship between the production and recollection of oneiric processes. Science, 281(5380), 11881191. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 362, 671 678. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2006.2003, Gershon, E. S., & Rieder, R. O. Sleep-related injury in 100 adult patients: A polysomnographic and clinical report. This pattern of brain activity explains the recovery of the executive metacognitive abilities and voluntary control that characterizes lucid dreaming (Dresler et al., 2012; Noreika, Windt, Lenggenhager, & Karim, 2010). Science, 118, 273274. New perspectives for the study of lucid dreaming: From brain stimulation to philosophical theories of self-consciousness. M. Bertini (Eds. ), Temas Selectos de Neurociencias. It has been proven through PET and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that during dreaming, there is an activation of the primary and supplementary motor areas, such as the frontal ocular area (Brodmanns area 8), which is activated by Unit1 and then collaborates in producing the rapid eye movements of REM sleep (Hong et al., 1995). doi: 10.1126/science.118.3062.273, Beck, A. T. (2008). Blood flow and oxygen uptake in the human brain during various states of sleep and wakefulness. RBD seems to be an early warning sign of Parkinsons disease, as some authors have noted that 65% of patients with this sleep disorder develop the disease within an average of nine years after RBD shows up (Abbott, 2005), indicating the degenerative etiology of this disorder. Stretton, J., & Thompson, P. J. Psychophysiology, 21(3), 279289. doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2010.01.002, Vogel, G. W. (1979). The content of the dream is bizarre by nature, with bizarre defined as featuring incongruities and discontinuities in the time, space, and the characters that appear in it (Corsi-Cabrera et al., 2003). While you were sleeping. According to the model presented in this research, dreams are difficult to remember precisely because of the lack of working memory due to the relative deactivation of the prefrontal lobe. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(1), 2330. Optic aphasia, optic apraxia, and loss of dreaming. La Interpretacin de los Sueos. Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening: tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke, 129(17), 1758-1761. doi: 10.4045/tidsskr.08.0465. International Journal of Dream Research, 3(1), 3645. Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder. Dreaming: the functional state-shift hypothesis. Although Luria does not explicitly mention it, we believe it is convenient to incorporate the limbic system as a Fourth Unit: D) Unit L, which includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and fornix, comprises the limbic system, as well as para-limbic structures, such as the cingulate gyrus and the para-hippocampal and orbitofrontal regions. This process allows for an increase in prefrontal lobe functioning and a decrease of limbic activity throughout the day, allowing better impulse control, planning, and self-regulation of behavior. Buenos Aires: Paids. The Psychologist, 13(12), 618-619.
Washington DC: Public Health Service, USA Government Printing Office. In the meantime, Unit 3, or the frontal lobe, simultaneously suffers an inhibition of some of its regions and an activation of others. Since its beginning, neuropsychology has focused on identifying the brain functions corresponding to psychological processes known as higher processes, such as attention, motor skills, perception, memory, language, and conscience, as well as their corresponding disorders (e.g., inattention, apraxia, agnosia, aphasia). The evolution of the cognitive model of depression and its neurobiological correlates. Tllez, A., Tllez, H., Tirado, H., Butcher, E., Railey, C., & Mendoza, M. E. During wakefulness, complex information processing is promoted by these regions, but they are not active during non-lucid dreaming. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 35(2), 193198. Epilepsy Research, 98(1), 113. These disturbances of the dreaming process are positively correlated with the appearance of some type of agnosia (Doricchi & Violani, 1992; Kerr & Foulkes, 1981; Murri et al., 1992; Pea-Casanova, Roig-Rovira, Bermudez, & Tolosa-Sarro1985). In J. S. Antrobus, & M. Bertini. A., & Stickgold, R. (1995). Frontal lobe function in temporal lobe epilepsy. These structures have a connection with Unit L. Moreover, the dorsolateral region of the prefrontal lobe (Brodmanns areas 9, 10, 45, 46, 47) and the orbital frontal region (Brodmanns areas 11 and 12) show an inhibition during dreaming.
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